Individual Differences and Mental Health

1.1.Introduction:

Depending on the literature evidence, the case study aims to present the potential diagnosis related to neurotic, personality, and psychotic disorder. In the given scenario, the possible diagnoses will not be straightforward as risks, prejudice, and context will be discussed. Various diagnostic methods may be used to support a single diagnosis and help in the treatment of the disorder (Lee et al., 2016). The main focus of this case study is to explore reflections and provide the psychological abnormalities from various biological and psychological perspectives. The case study will possibly relate to potential interpretations, possible etiologies, support, and treatment options. The essay will conclude with assessment of various feasible models for treatment of PS. The symptoms described in the case studies relate to several anxiety disorders (DeMartini, Patel & Fancher, 2019). In various diagnostic and statistical manual editions of mental disorders (DSM; American psychiatric association), anxiety disorders have undergone various changes. The diagnosis of anxiety disorders is confusing for anxiety disorder specialists as well (Blazer et al., 1991). 

This essay will explain the causes, diagnoses, and support treatment linked to PS and his daily life experiences in the current context. The given essay will acquire the psychosocial framework model (BPS). The approach will be critically analyzed and evaluated considering the condition of PS. The biopsychosocial model is an interdisciplinary model related to biological, social, psychological, and environmental factors. The model plays a vital role in suspecting the health and disease factors related to human development (Revolta, Orrell & Spector, 2016). Moreover, it helps the individual to determine the possible diagnosis and its related treatment (Revolta, Orrell & Spector, 2016). The traditional model offers the psychiatric diagnosis and explains the persons story as loss of power and threat associated with social and economic inequality (Johnstone & Boyle, 2018). This model will be presented and evaluated in the current essay to determine the PS experience and possible causes. The explanation and probable cause of PS will aid in identifying the support and solution of the case report.

1.2.Main body:

1.2.1.Possible explanation:

The case report suggests that worrying is the biggest problem of PS, a 67yearold male. PS worries about his wife and assumes an intrusive image of his wife and other close friends dying. These symptoms of anxiety, worry, sleeping difficulty, concentration difficulty, and irritability are related to Generalized anxiety disorder (DeMartini, Patel & Fancher, 2019).  Patients are suffering from GAD experience persistent and excessive anxiety associated with the recurrent worry about everyday events (DeMartini, Patel & Fancher, 2019). Furthermore, it is associated with the physical symptoms of insomnia, distress, impairment in personal occupation, and other areas. He worries about every little and big thing in the same way (DeMartini, Patel & Fancher, 2019). According to the case report, he equally worries about his wife, who was diagnosed with breast cancer, and the book he had to return. These things are bothering at the same level, suggesting excessive anxiety (Robichaud, Koerner & Dugas, 2019). In the start, a patient suffering from anxiety disorder and average person worries the same way, but the anxiety symptom persists in the generalized anxiety disorder patient (Crocq, 2017). PS feels difficulty controlling his worry that leads to difficulty sleeping, impatience with others, muscle fatigues, lack of concentration, the possible symptoms of a generalized anxiety disorder (Robichaud, Koerner & Dugas, 2019). The persistent anxiety for three months has provoked the PS to have unwanted thoughts and an intrusive image of women and close friend dying (Crocq, 2017). Chronic anxiety leads to apprehensive expectation, motor tension, vigilance, and autonomic hyperactivity (Matuszewich, 2007). PS lives with his wife alone and has no family, which causes zero behavioral engagement and provokes isolation (Robichaud, Koerner & Dugas, 2019). His sister died from cancer in childhood, and now his wife is experiencing the same condition, which can be the possible cause of the panic disorder (Crocq, 2017). One of the most common reported causes of panic disorders is recurrent experiences of stressful events (Wang et al., 2021). Some symptoms confirmed that PS suffers from a generalized anxiety disorder, while other symptoms suggest panic disorder (Robinaugh et al., 2019). However, the potential disorder in PS is still unknown. The symptoms are related to the disorders as per the empirical observations conducted on a wide array of subjects over the last few decades (Perrotta, 2019). The symptoms apply to PS’s circumstances because he has experienced situations, which may suggest the correlation with the panic disorder as per the psychosocial framework model (BPS).

1.2.2.Possible diagnostic methods:

Several types of anxiety disorders are present, making it challenging to differentiate the current anxiety disorder from others (Hendriks et al., 2016). Consequently, some people have specific phobias that provoke worrying, anxiety and keep them awake at night (Hendriks et al., 2016). However, showing the signs of worrying, sleeping difficulty, lack of concentration, and stress can be related to generalize anxiety disorder. So, this anxiety type could be the possible diagnosis of the PS symptoms (Khambaty & Parikh, 2019). According to the information of DSM, mental health conditions and the symptoms are related to the diagnostic measures of anxiety level. Almost every illness in DSM has derived from Western culture studies and their conclusions exhibit the generalization of their cultures while other cultures remain minimized (Khambaty & Parikh, 2019).  In various cultures, all the social norms are different, as focusing on the particular individual is essential. The diagnosis of PS may vary from culture to culture, questioning about the diagnosis and reliability (Good & Kleinman, 2019). If the cultural background and ethics of PS were from a nonEuropean country, the research methods and results couldn’t be applicable in the same way (Khambaty & Parikh, 2019). It is essential to take a professional opinion in all these states as the knowledge and experience are related to the individual illness (Foa & Kozak, 2019). Lastly, the doctor examines the medications to come up with a possible diagnosis (Bandelow, Michaelis & Wedekind, 2017).

1.2.3.Possible aetiologies:

According to the national institute of mental health, the exact cause of anxiety disorders is still unknown. However, many researchers believe that genetic and environmental factors could be the possible cause of anxiety disorders (Huang & Zhao, 2020). Furthermore, brain chemistry is involved in the area that controls fear response leading towards the misalignment of electrical signals and hormones in the brain. Along with mental health conditions, anxiety disorders are the leading cause of depression and abuse (Edmund & Sheppard, 2018). The environmental factors include work, relationships and family issues. Sometimes, the disturbance in the home leads to severe anxiety in young and old age. In the current scenario, PS has got family problems as her wife has breast cancer (Huang & Zhao, 2020). Genetic is the other possible cause of anxiety disorder, but the case is not relevant to the current case (Edmund & Sheppard, 2018). In this state, it is possible to ask some questions to the patient regarding the genetic cause (Edmund & Sheppard, 2018). Since PS didn’t share his medical records, symptoms of other medical conditions and their corresponding medication could provoke stress. According to the BPS model, the possible cause of anxiety disorder includes the environmental/social, psychological and biological causes (Silvernale, Kuo & Staller, 2019). Both psychological and biological vulnerabilities couple with the social environment and trigger insecurities. The biological aspect is related to the genetic traits and the inherited brain functioning specific to the personality type (Silvernale, Kuo & Staller, 2019). However, psychological factors are associated with beliefs and thought concerning the environment and experience (Silvernale, Kuo & Staller, 2019).

PS thought about the environment (family and friends) as an important model of anxiety disorder. The fear of cancer had persisted in PS since childhood as her sister died of cancer. Modern attachment theory argues that humans have genetically built social expectations that need to be fulfilled (Boehlen et al., 2020). Since PS has no family member except his wife, he becomes insecure and worries about being alone (Boehlen et al., 2020). Meeting these expectations leads towards secure attachment concerning the psychological and biological mechanisms. In the current scenario, the possible option for PS is to seek a supportive attachment relationship during his entire lifespan (Boehlen et al., 2020).

The attachment theory relates to the cyclic process of ‘broaden and build’, allowing the individual to experience the personal agency that can regulate emotions and conflict in exploratory behaviors (Nielsen et al., 2017). These behaviors affect the new environment accommodating the new challenges and results in supportive relationships (Nielsen et al., 2017). According to functional neuroimaging studies, the inverse relationship in the patient affects the cortisol level in the social stress and supportive social network (Nielsen et al., 2017). Secure attachment is associated with stronger disease in the anxiety state followed through the stress exposure (Nielsen et al., 2017). Normative stress response and secure attachment are associated with the current model, depicting the future environmental challenges of developmental psychopathology (Nielsen et al., 2017).

The biological model depends on the biology and medical approaches to explain abnormality, neglecting the environmental and psychological factors (Silvernale, Kuo & Staller, 2019). The current scenario state that PS has undergone various mental challenges in childhood. The environment of the home has a great influence on the life of an individual (Boehlen et al., 2020). The fear of cancer has endured in PS since childhood as her sister died of cancer. Now, the wife of PS has breast cancer, provoking anxiety and stress (Boehlen et al., 2020). A better approach to understand the condition of PS is to apply the biopsychosocial model to exhibit the potential genetic and environmental influence. Understanding the psychological and environmental causes of PS can help in a better diagnosis and treatment (Silvernale, Kuo & Staller, 2019).

1.2.4.Possible treatment:

According to various researchers, it was found that generalized anxiety disorder treatment is based on the ability of the disorder to affect the daily functioning of life (Robichaud, Koerner & Dugas, 2019). The nature of anxiety disorder varies from disorder to disorder, providing specific therapies and medications (Evans, 2016). Examining the condition of PS, it was found that the maximum symptom of PS is related to Generalized anxiety disorder. The treatment method used for generalized anxiety disorder is classified into medications and psychotherapy (Strawn et al., 2018). In some cases, the doctor suggests getting the maximum benefit from both treatments. Hoge et al. (2018) explained the effect of meditation on generalized anxiety disorder. Psychotherapy is the common counselling session that can help the PS to reduce the anxiety symptoms. Among psychotherapies, cognitive behavioral therapy is considered the most effective therapy against generalized anxiety disorder. The therapy emphasizes teaching specific skills that aids to manage the worries. Robichaud et al. (2019) determined the role of cognitivebehavioral therapy effective in the treatment.

Alternatively, Hirsh & Mathew (2012) identified that cold cognitive control impairment is associated with the hot buttonup influence, allowing the threatening information to change into consciousness. The interaction of hot and cold influences causes the patient to worry, leading to anxiety development. The whole theory was supported by several experiments and selfreport findings that suggested the role of cold cognitive control. A study supported this theory that individuals having high trait anxiety showed good attentional control and disengaged from the threat than the anxious individual with poor attention control. Hallion et al. (2017) showed that high trait worries individuals are more prone to the impairment on cold cognitive control tasks than individuals thinking about positive topics. In cognitive training, improvements are associated with recurrent training and no transfer of untrained processes. To identify the cognitive mechanism of generalized anxiety disorder, it is essential to specify the components of cognitive control related to the generalized anxiety symptoms. 

Considering the condition of PS, another available treatment option is the various types of medication to treat generalized anxiety disorder (Strawn et al., 2018). Antidepressants are commonly the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) are considered the firstline medications. These antidepressants help the individual and provide relief. Furthermore, buspirone is an antianxiety medication that can be used daily. In limited circumstances, the doctor suggests benzodiazepines to relieve the anxiety symptoms. However, the drug is effective on a short term basis (Strawn et al., 2018).

In the current study, anxiety disorders and generalized anxiety disorder are the two possible diagnoses. But, all the symptoms are closely related to generalized anxiety disorder rather than the other anxiety disorders. So, medication and psychotherapies are the available treatment option. For a long term basis, antianxiety medication can be helpful to reduce the negative symptoms. However, cognitivebehavioral therapy is the must requirement to deal with the condition and manage the personal responsibilities. Following these treatment options can help the PS to regain his health.

1.3.Conclusion: 

To conclude, the entire case study provided feasible models highlighting the possible diagnosis, causes and treatment for PS. According to various researchers, it was determined that no single theory could explain the proper condition of the patient as it varies. The study suggested the role of BPS that explained the role of a psychological, social and biological factor in the disease recurrence. All the possible diagnoses explained that PS was suffering from a generalized anxiety disorder. In this aspect, identifying the sociocultural factors are important as it provokes mental health struggles through various domains.

Furthermore, PS requires additional care and various treatment (therapies and medications) to reduce the stress and worry related to the current condition. Furthermore, positive behavior from friends and family can be beneficial in treating generalized anxiety disorder. Therefore, these approaches are essential to determine as they provide a positive and protective environment to the patient, allowing him to feel empowered and fulfil their life goals.   

Case study 2

2.1. Introduction:

In the competitive workplace, finding the right personality may not be easy  (Kinnunen & Parviainen, 2016). The overall procedure of choosing the right personality aids to strengthen customer service and allow teams to make a critical decision about the organization (Kinnunen & Parviainen, 2016). On a global level, the process of recruitment takes place at a high level. A personality testing tool is used to assess human personality (Kinnunen & Parviainen, 2016). The main target of the testing is to identify the characteristics pattern of a specific trait, exhibiting in various situations. In a clinical diagnosis, personality tests are the essential tool that guides the therapeutic invention through predicting the peoples response in the diverse changing environment (McCord, Harman & Purl, 2019). In the recruitment process, the hiring manager performs the tasks of personality testing to determine the best fit for the organization. It involves the collection of various details regarding the candidates appearance and movement of the body (McCord, Harman & Purl, 2019). Personality tests are classified into two types of projective and selfreport inventories. Selfreport inventories deal with the process of asking questions to the test takers and identify their responses (Diekmann & König, 2018). Consequently, projective testing provides the unclear scene to the test taker and asks them to interpret the entire situation (Diekmann & König, 2018). Depending on the answer, managers estimate the personality of the test taker. In the quality selection procedures, predictive validity tests are used for the prediction of work (Lundgren, Kroon & Poell, 2017).

Commonly, mental ability tests or assessment centres are used to make a valid judgment regarding personality testing  (McCord, Harman & Purl, 2019). Reliability and validity are the familiar characters of personality testing that describe quality criteria (McCord, Harman & Purl, 2019). The building block of personality includes the big five personality traits. It includes agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion, and conscientiousness. According to the trait theory of personality, many personality traits exist that suggest the number of personality traits (4000 traits and 16 factors) (McCord, Harman & Purl, 2019). The current case study deals with personality testing. NM has to recruit employees into the department through personality testing focusing on some personality traits of sensing, toughmindedness, emotional stability, openness, thinking, extraversion, etc. Therefore, the essay focuses on explaining the different psychological trait theories of personality for recruiting new members into a workplace.

2.2. Main body:

NM has to shortlist the candidate based on conscientiousness, sensing, extraversion, openness, thinking, emotional stability, toughmindedness, and selfsufficiency in the case study. Among different personality theories, Eysenck’s personality theory is related to the case study exhibiting the features of Extraversion, emotional stability, toughmindedness (critical evaluation) and psychoticism (Alhendi, 2019). According to the theory, individual inherit the type of nervous system that affect their learning ability and helps to adjust in the environment (Alhendi, 2019). The theory states to take an initial assessment of the test taker. In the current scenario, NM can take an initial assessment test (Matthews, 2016). Before hiring into the organization, it is essential to take an assessment test following the Eysenck theory. The theory will allow the NM to determine the behaviour of the people and their concerns regarding the job. Various studies have been performed on this theory (Matthews, 2016). Similarly, a study was performed on the soldiers to determine their personality traits. The theory suggested that answers revealed several personality traits. Every person has various personality traits, which differentiates it from the other (Revelle, 2016). According to five significant personality trait factors, it is essential to determine the extraversion factor in the job recruitment procedure (Küssner, 2017). Extraverts are social people and crave excitement but become bored quickly (Alhendi, 2019). Compared to introverts, extroverts are optimistic, impulsive and carefree (Matthews, 2016). NM should look for extraversion among various personality traits as they are ready to take risks and thrillseekers. Eysenck theory argues that these factors are inherited as they arise under the nervous system and seek stimulation to restore optimism (Alhendi, 2019). However, neuroticism or emotional stability deals with the reactivity of the sympathetic nervous system (Matthews, 2016). A stable person’s nervous system remains less stressful and reactive in the organization, making the person calm towards the challenging situation (Küssner, 2017). Compared to a person low in neuroticism, high neuroticism person is more unstable and tends to be overreactive towards the problematic situation. So, hiring a person deficient in neuroticism can help the NM to find the best talent (Matthews, 2016). The emotionally unstable person tends to worry, anger and fear more. Considering the situation, NM has to look for an emotionally stable person as they remain calm and handle the situation without being worried. Eysenck explained the third personality trait, psychoticism. It deals with a lack of empathy, troublesome, aggressive, loner and cruel nature (Kinnunen & Parviainen, 2016). Furthermore, it is associated with a high level of testosterone that increases the level of psychoticism (Colledani, Anselmi & Robusto, 2018). Compared to the high level, a low level of testosterone is linked to expected behaviours. Eysenck argues that two dimensions of neuroticism are combined to form a various variety of personality characteristics (Colledani, Anselmi & Robusto, 2018). Lastly, conscientiousness is a genetic personality trait. According to the theory, it was explained that conscientiousness is associated with better job performance and have the inherited trait (Alhendi, 2019). Therefore, social factors are essential from the recruitment point of view (Colledani, Anselmi & Robusto, 2018). One element of theory relates nurture and nature and argue that biological predisposition towards specific personality traits is combined with the socialization and conditioning element to create the personality (Colledani, Anselmi & Robusto, 2018). In the environmental and biological areas, the approach is considered more valid. In a working environment, all these factors make a model for the proper recruitment that must be followed (Alhendi, 2019).

The Eysenck theory depicts the complete model of personality traits, showing its close association with other psychobiological theories, specifically reinforcement sensitivity theory (Alhendi, 2019). The conceptual nervous system explains brain functioning and its link to neuroticism and emotion in the work environment (Gottfredson, 2016). The theory could help the NM to recruit the person to deal with the fight and flight behaviours (Gottfredson, 2016). CNS directly control the difference in performance, creating an interpretive personality difference in the workplace. The theory states that stable emotional people welcome the new approaches and challenges and differentiate various roles in a workplace (Gottfredson, 2016). The role of multiple neurotransmitters modulate attention and helps the person to accept new opportunities (Gottfredson, 2016). Arousal theory is linked with the Eysenck theory that explains the role of individual differences in performance and learning (Reisenzein, 2017). Arousal theory explains the impact of traits on health, social functioning and work performance in the organization. Furthermore, Socialcognitive therapy is directly linked to the Eysenck theory that builds personalitys mental models or schemes (Reisenzein, 2017). Cultural and biological factors are associated with selfpresentation concerning social behaviours and neural processes (Reisenzein, 2017). 

According to the insight of stress research, a stressor effect can be strategic or structural. In a working environment, the structural impact is linked to the basic parameters, showing the processing speed (Matthews, 2016). However, the strategic process is associated with the voluntary control of components such as choosing the task and prioritizing the job details (Küssner, 2017). NM should search for these broader processes in the overall recruitment procedure due to their importance in selfregulation and personal objectives. Based on stress research, Eysencks theory explains a similar distinction (Alhendi, 2019). Arousal variation comes under the category of the structure (change of processes in the recruitment) while avoiding arousal seems strategic (Matthews, 2016). Both of these factors are prevalent in the working environment, and Eysenck theory may not be applied to distinguish these two effects (Alhendi, 2019). Strategy studies are commonly used practice in anxiety and performance. Metacognitive style shapes the strategic selection in strategy selection, where the person shows the preference for controlling and monitoring thoughts and feelings (Matthews, 2016).

Personality testing shares a typical relationship with test integrity and predict the overall job performance. In the comprehensive personality testing, NM has to make several efforts (Remann & Nordin, 2021). The famous model of human personality trait is the significant five factors that play a crucial role in the personality trait (Alhendi, 2019). According to the theory of Eysenck, these factors are essential for the recruitment procedures and helps in the better understanding of the job (Remann & Nordin, 2021). All these factors can be determined through the GMA test. In the current study, NM could undergo a GMA test to assess the candidates future job performance (Matthews, 2016). In the start, every factor holds importance and meaning in the recruitment procedures (Remann & Nordin, 2021). Conscientiousness is the tendency to determine the personal commitment to the job and his ability to take action. A high level of consciousness defines the reliability, trust and increased tendency to achieve goals (Remann & Nordin, 2021). For determining predictive validity, a study was investigated to explain the relation between conscientiousness and satisfaction in careers. The result showed a strong relationship between these factors (Alhendi, 2019). Furthermore, it was suggested that increased conscientiousness cause the employee to plan and leave a job in case of low company performance and responsibility (Oshio, 2018). The second factor is openness, which emphasises the persons mind and ability to imagine and exhibit transparency in the working environment (Oshio, 2018). In a study, it was determined that exposure to several things leads to increase job satisfaction. But, the openness factor solely depends on the job setting as it shows various personality and job satisfaction results (Alhendi, 2019). Apart from other factors, openness is not entirely linked to transparency as it relies on job experience and personality (Alhendi, 2019). Eysenck theory explains extraversion and its essential role in the overall job performance. The theory argues that a person must be an extrovert to deal with social issues in the work environment (Matthews, 2016).

Moreover, it is suggested that extroverts are energetic and tend to be more positive towards making a solid relationship with people (Atli, 2017). The theory states that extroverts are the predictor and indicators that reduce stress and workload, results in better work performance (Atli, 2017). In this way, it leads towards an increased job satisfaction rate with a positive mindset (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). The fourth factor is agreeableness, which measures the forgiveness and cooperation level in a competitive workplace (Atli, 2017). Different researches state that agreeableness is the crucial factor that allows the employees to work as a team (Atli, 2017). Lastly, emotional stability explained by the Eysenck theory says that estimation about the feelings of depression, anger, instability and anxiety allows the manager to determine the work performance and needs for change (Matthews, 2016). Neuroticism can be explained as the common factor to exhibit an indicator of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Atli, 2017).

According to Eysenck theory, the performances and personality traits depict the few specifications. In the personality testing of recruitment test, the main limitation is the influence of brain arousal on a persons overall performance (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). Furthermore, it identifies the three additional causal models (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). The first model represents the sophisticated model of contemporary neuroscience, allowing various levels of regulation of stimulus processing such as goals (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). The second model states that humans are different from animals according to linguistic representation (Colledani, Anselmi & Robusto, 2018). It supports the planning and future events, allowing the cognitive processing operation in lower level nonsymbolic processing (Atli, 2017). The third model describes that cognitive psychology represents the modular view of symbolic processing. Personality is classified into beliefs and the self of people (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). The Eysenck theory argues that the localization of brain traits leads to increasing challenges in structure and systems proliferation (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). Consequently, cognitive theories exhibit the central insight of personality, showing the semantic consistencies in people about their social world and place in it (Atli, 2017). 

In the context of job performance, the critiques of cognitive psychology kill the traditional arousal theory stress factors (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). These stress factors have various influences on information processing (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019).  Furthermore, cognitive psychology explains the complex pattern of performance change that arousal theory cannot explain (Matthews, 2016). A study stated that personality and performance association are similar (Alhendi, 2019). Personality traits may not be able to assume the global enhancement of performance (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019). Attentional impairment is linked to the anxiety trait, specific to the process and performance in a job process (Atli, 2017). The parameters associated with the traits are diverse, including the qualitative biases and rate change procedures (Küssner, 2017). In social cognitive personality models, the same ideas are prevalent. Compared to other therapies, Eysencks notion of trait theory is the direct element of CNS. NM has to consider all these factors before making a proper decision (Odac? & Cikrikci, 2019).

2.3. Conclusion:

In the current case study, it was concluded that Eysenck theory could be applied. NM has to hire managers as it demands high skills to tackle the challenging situation. The essay suggested that Eysenck theory focus on extraversion, emotional stability, toughmindedness or (critical evaluation) and psychoticism. Undoubtedly, five significant factors are important from the psychological point of view and act as a strong personality trait. Furthermore, these traits make the overall procedure of recruitment more fruitful. The personality trait relation with Eysenck theory stated that extraversion is an essential tool as it provokes energy and optimism to the entire working environment and reduces the workload. However, emotional stability is significant to handle the challenging situation without any fear. Toughmindedness are linked with taking a test to estimate the test takers performance. All these factors represent the different personalities of the people. NM should perform all the things according to the theory to evaluate the interviewee and hire accordingly. Many studies suggested that the validity of these factors help in the better company performance. Extraversion and openness are the two validated factors that represent the prediction about the training. Conscientiousness is a part of the Eysenck theory, and NM could determine it as it is a good factor for future job performance and career.

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