1. Segmental phonology

1.1 Features speech sounds.

Each sound can be analyzed with regard to its phonetic characteristics, the sound components, which can be regulated independently by the joints. We can address the characteristics of each sound with a feature matrix, and were using the feature matrix to reflect a sound class with similar characteristics. We have almost exclusively concentrated on segments of our thinking on speech sounds. Segments are separate speech sounds that are each transcribed in the IPA with a specific symbol. We have shown that each segment will affect the segments before and after it, by articulation and other joint processes. We also saw that segments can be clustered into syllables, which in another unit we examine in greater detail[1]. Two different segments may or may not contrast with in the grammar of the any language. We spoke, then, as if segments were the smallest unit of speech, but each segment of speech consists of features called smaller components. Each function is a sound factor that we can independently monitor.

2.1 Overall pronunciations

The pronunciation of its spelling should be clear. In certain cases, however, the impulsion to preserve the common verb pronounces sound pattern is too intense to stop. We hear this word being pronounced as if it were written p r n o n c i a t i o n too much. All of this recalls that the whole topic of correct pronunciation is full of debate. Changes from what we saw grew up are always withstood by unexpectedly passionate disgust. Yet we know that language is changing rapidly and that certain pronunciations that were once attacked as ignorant are now appropriate even in the most educated regions. For eg, we hear both and historically accurate for a sense of something that is so excellently for example (see Pronunciation note at forte1). And stress dynamics shift with new generations is rapidly being overtaken by comparable[2]. Language specialists take advantage of the ability to notice these developments and research them language invention can be interesting also thrilling. However, such differences from the current standard are not recognized, and as long as the way you are saying is a marker of your education or of your ability to succeed in school or for a potential work, it is easier to stop mistaken pronouncing such as [pruh noun see ey shuhn].

1.3 Mispronounced sounds

English is difficult to spell. However, most of us get by with a mixture of simple phonetics, school routines and even dictionary visits (and learning from a few embarrassing mistakes along the way). English has the most complicated Western language spelling (and, after all, we have spelling bees, which are nearly unique to the United States). This is partially because of the mischievous aspect of the script, which came out of a mixture of English, Latin, Old Norse and English of the ruling class after the Norman conquest in 1066.

This motley jumble of languages and more time (were not even going to get into the major vowel shift) made English orthodox and sometimes contra intuitive. It is also difficult to say a lot of words confidently and accurately because of the uneven orthography with pronunciation. Consider the different ways we produce the \f\ sound in cough, picture, and giraffe, or the \sh\ sound in unique, matter, vicious, and part, or the \k\ sound in tack, very, and shellac, and how we pronounce the o in do, heart, lock, and bone, or the ea in lead, ocean, idea, and early. And theres, of course, cough, hard, still bough, and cross.

Lets look at a few words that sound very different in what one would expect from the spelling. Most of these are fairly familiar words, but most often found from reading rather than speaking English. And eager readers with great vocabulary may be stunned at the sound of a few sentences. One thing is certain: if you correctly pronounce these tricky terms, it reveals that you know what they say, too.

2. Suprasegmental phonology

2.1 Stress & intonation

The curriculum focuses on stress, pacing and intonation. Stress is about that sounds in words and phrases we emphasize. Phrases have powerful beats (stressed words) and slow beats (unstressed words). Intonation is the tone of a voice of a speaker when they talk.[3]

2.1.1 Stress

The emphasis is given to a single syllable or word in voice, usually by incorporating comparatively higher loudness, higher pitch and longer length. Syllable is form of a sentence spoken with an unbroken voice. It should also be remembered that we emphasize the vowel sound of a name, not really the consonant sound. The stress on syllables of one word is referred to as lexical stress either word stress. Stressing a few words in such a sentence is known as sentencing stress or phonetic stress.

2.1.2 Intonation

Intonation of the spoken language is the alteration in our pitch. Intonation shows our thoughts and feelings, determines the distinction between declarations and questions, and also stresses the significance of the verbal communication we send.[4] There are three basic intonation patterns in English: falling sound, rising sounds and partial/case sounding.

2.2 Stress & intonation affect the comprehensibility

This study explores the influence of segments, intonation & rhythm on second language experiences (L2) by concentrating on Mandarin Chinese, a tone language. Fifteen China sentences are manipulated by transferring native and L2 speakers into segments, intonation and rhythm. 64 Chinese judges listened to an original and distorted phrase and were asked to evaluate their accentuation and understanding. The results of the scores of the Chinese native judges reveal that segments contribute more than intonation and rhythm to the perception of L2, and the intonation contributes more to the perception of L2 than to rhythm. It also was found that accent scores were strongly associated with comprehension. The results of this research support what some recent studies have shown concerning the contribution in segments and prosodies to L2 interpretation. However, the relationship between L2 emphasis and comprehension varies from certain previous studies.

3. Fluency and Pausing

3.1 Fluency

At least two distinct but inter related terms generally referred to as broad versus narrow fluency are referred to in English, and maybe some other languages (Lennon, 1990). Fluency relates to the “skill of an L2 speaker in its wide sense; fluency in its narrow sense is considered to mean the capacity to communicate fluently and naturally without excessive reluctance and disruption. Tavakoli & Hunter (2018) based on data obtained from L2 students, Lennon (1990) extended his dichotomy into a paradigm at four levels, arguing that teachers are understanding and defining fluency in a general, narrow, narrow and very narrow context. They argued that fluency is generally called the overall language skill in its broad sense, whereas in the general sense it reflects the capacity to communicate. [5] In a narrow sense, fluency reflects general simplicity, rhythm and clarity of voice often in opposition to precision and sophistication and, in its specific sense, fluency is shown by such temporal, acoustic and dysfunctional characteristics including volume, disruption and repair actions. In Tavakoli & Hunter (2018), the findings of the study indicated that the definition of fluency differed considerably among teachers & their reports were more directed at improving rather than fluency aspects of skill.

3.2 Pauses & Hesitati

Pauses & hesitations are most much second language oral development, which may mean the vast amount of planning and implementation challenges faced by second language learners. The study also demonstrates there are very substantial individual variations and that there are a vast amount of delays and hesitations in some students expressions, whilst other students have another linguistic behavior. The study of pauses and other hesitation phenomena in speech processing in the field of psycholinguistics has been analyzed as evidence of language preparation infer processes or signal overloading of the production mechanism (Golman Eisler, 1968, 1972). However, as noted by Garman (1990), speakers do not necessarily require a break and not all breaks should be viewed as proof of language preparation [6].

Silent pauses are related to silent intervals in interruptions of speech by non lexical sounds such as ah, mm, er, mm, uH, urn between vocalizations and filled pauses. Full and silent pauses are the product of various internal mechanisms, according to the Goldman Eisler (1968). The pauses filled represent affective states such as fear and silent pauses, which correlate to the cognitive complexity of the job.

In the second language speaking, non juncture delay and other hesitating phenomena (repetition, self correction, reformulations) can occur because speakers need to not only locate the next thought, but also the next linguistic component(s) in a language of limited ability. In addition, second language students can still have trouble mastering the verbal usage of delays and doubts.

4. Teaching

4.1 presentation skill

Pronouncing segmental factors must be balanced by including learners knowledge of tension, pacing, intonation and substantive production. However, many forms of speech do not position those abilities and knowledge of the superfluous characteristics in communicative formats or in a particular speaking situation. However, the reasons why students improve pronunciation can be very specific. For many ESL and EFL students, an expert pronunciation is related to a successful presentation of globalization in a foreign context. The paper makes an argument for extending pronunciation development to the needs of students who undergo presentation or speech communication training courses [7].A selection of pronunciation skills specific to lecture courses was discussed in the context of combining accuracy and fluency. Evidence is discussed of the value of the relationship between super segment sensitivity and output. Secondly, the use of speech development techniques is related to increasing consumer demand for presenting skills in both EFL and ESL scenarios. In the field for English Language Teaching preaching had periods of fame and periods of neglect. The need to insist on accuracy of sound has always remained although the emphasis on pronunciation differs from one on fluency by means of communication tasks. It is important to describe what we mean through pronunciation teaching when considering the talent and the balance among fluency and accuracy (Brumfit 1984). Pronunciation exercises include learning opportunities to improve accurate sound system management (Murphy, 1991). It is worth signaling that speech practises are also designed to provide opportunities for better oral fluency and to spread the word through interpersonal activities. This paper indicates that pronunciation exercises should be incorporated into the fluency of the presentation skills format so that the relationship between accuracy and quality of contact persists. Presentation skills are speaking skills for an audience you want to persuade or reassure in a moving manner. In order to talk effectively in a public context, rhythm, intonation, tension, pitch and nonverbal are required. Both these super segmental are part of the growth of pronunciation, and analysis shows their significance. Research on the integration of supra segmental perception and presenting skills will be presented.

 4.2 Broad picture of speech

Talking as an ability can be used in two significant groups. The first is motor perception and the second is social skills. Audio lingual techniques emphasized the motor perceptive abilities to listening, remembering and articulating (Mackey, 1965), but to concentrate on sounds solely like learning a bicycle on a traffic free lane. The languages interpersonal skills with situational awareness are also important. Wilkins (1975) says that the students must be able to transfer information from a condition of language learning into a situation of language use (1975: 76). The motor perception skills are always context less to expand the case and the learner cannot pass them to an understandable output (Swain, 1985). In another way, pronunciation knowledge must be transferred into contextual speech skills. In order to do so, pronunciation is placed in a contact condition in order to combine motor perception and interaction skills. Bygate (1987) points out their value in a short overview of interaction skills [8].

Interaction skills include making communication choices, like: what to say, how to say it, and whether to construct it according to ones own wishes while preserving the optimal relationships with others. It should be noted that our thoughts about what is right or wrong now depend on such things as what we decide to say, how good we have been so far, whether it would be useful to continue the problem, what our intentions are and what kind of relationship we intend to build or sustain with our interlocutors.

References

1. Pulvermüller, F., Huss, M., Kherif, F., del Prado Martin, F.M., Hauk, O. and Shtyrov, Y., 2006. Motor cortex maps articulatory features of speech sounds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(20), pp.7865 7870.
2. Buz, E., Tanenhaus, M.K. and Jaeger, T.F., 2016. Dynamically adapted context specific hyper articulation: Feedback from interlocutors affects speakers’ subsequent pronunciations. Journal of memory and language, 89, pp.68 86.
3. Bolinger, D.L., 1955. Intersections of stress and intonation. Word, 11(2), pp.195 203.
4. Cutler, A., 1980. Errors of stress and intonation.
5. Wolf, M. and Katzir Cohen, T., 2001. Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific studies of reading, 5(3), pp.211 239.
6. Gayraud, F., Lee, H.R. and Barkat Defradas, M., 2011. Syntactic and lexical context of pauses and hesitations in the discourse of Alzheimer patients and healthy elderly subjects. Clinical linguistics & phonetics, 25(3), pp.198 209.
7. Mousawa, D.T. and Elyas, T., 2015. Presentation as employability soft skill to ESP learners in the English language institute at King Abdulaziz University. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(5), pp.1058 1062.
8. Saito, K., Tanida, A., Kashihara, A. and Hasegawa, S., 2010, October. A Framework for Developing Presentation Skill with Presentation Schema. In E Learn: World Conference on E Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education(pp. 2696 2703). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).