Pulmonary Ventilation

ANSWER 1:

The term “Pulmonary Ventilation” is defined as breathing and respiring. It is the mechanism of air flowing out of the lungs, which is called the process of expiration and within the lungs, which is called the process of inspiration. The main reason for air flows is just because of the pressure variation among the gases and atmosphere within the lungs. The famous author has termed oxygen as the fire of life (Max Kleiber, 1961). The biological system with which the pulmonary ventilation is interlinked is the respiratory system. Different respiratory muscles are involved in the process to develop a better gaseous exchange and normal body functioning. oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is involved in the process of pulmonary ventilation. Both the heart and the lungs are involved in this process to utilize oxygen and to exhale carbon dioxide.

The primary function of pulmonary ventilation is to permit the availability of oxygen to the blood, which is transferred throughout the body to all the cells with the help of the cardiovascular system. At the stage of Cellular, the process of interchange of Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and Oxygen (O₂) is essential to generate and produce vitality during controlling and adjusting the internal surroundings and environment of tissues for the contraction of muscles. August Krogh (1941) declares that the term evaluative need for molecular oxygen as “the label for oxygen.”  This biological process involves studying respiratory cells as well as the mol; molecular biology.

The gas exchange in pulmonary ventilation is an essential aspect as measurements of Arterial blood gas, including the concentrations and tensions of Oxygen (O2) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) establish a centerpiece of clinical care to evaluate the stage and level of pulmonary gas exchange abnormality. The responsibility of lungs is to transfer and deliver a tidal volume, which is accomplished of maintaining sufficient ventilation. Dead space is the space of airways in which the transmission and exchange of Oxygen (O2) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) amid the pulmonary capillary blood and air. Alveoli ventilation is defined as the amount of air that is coming to alveoli. The pressure which mentions to that pressure within the pleural cavity and this is known as negative pressure.

ANSWER 2: 

Due to the essential and necessary source of energy, usually, tissues and other organs need glucose. The mechanism of maintaining a stable and balanced state of blood glucose is known as the process of glucose homeostasis. This strategy is achieved by the adjustment and movement of uptake peripheral glucose, glucose uptake during the period of carbohydrates ingestions, and production of hepatic glucose, respectively (Szablewski, 2011). Glucose homeostasis has great importance in human health and the biological behavior of the human body, as glucose level is highly essential for the maintenance of biological behavior. Also, the brain cannot synthesize glucose that is the reason that glucose homeostasis is highly essential for the human body.  

PROCESS OF GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS:

The body starts to maintain and adjust stages of glucose by two hormones confidentially to avoid fasting hypoglycemia and postprandial hypoglycemia. The β cells which belongs to pancreatic islets of Langerhans classifies more than insulin during the periods of hyperglycemia. The main motive and function of insulin are to check and counter the number of hormones that are generating by hyperglycemia to control and maintain low blood glucose stage, respectively. Insulin also plays a vital role in the control of glucose metabolism. When the scene of blood glucose enhances over five mmol/ L, so, the consequence of this increment is that β cells use to increase their output of insulin. As followed by the increased insulin synthesis, there is continuously releasing performed insulin and realizing in response to blood glucose, respectively. If the concentration of glucose is high, so, the long term release of insulin occurs (Aronoff et al., 2004; Cryer,1992). An excellent example of negative feedback is to control and maintain blood sugar (glucose) with the help of insulin. On the other hand, the pancreas, which is the control and regulation center, confident insulin into the blood, and it causes lowering and reducing blood sugar levels and stages as well. Also, with this, if the level of blood sugar approaches homeostasis, then the pancreas do not release insulin. Unbalancing in this process might lead to cause diabetes while declining the biological functioning.

ANSWER 3:

 An organ that is shaped as hollow muscular and is situated in the center of the chest is known as heart. There are two phases of heart, one is ventricle and the other in the atrium. The upper chamber gathers blood and pumps it into the lower chamber, while the lower chamber is the ventricle. The function of the ventricle is to pump the blood outside the heart. The blood vessels and heart constitutes the cardiovascular system. Each valve comprises of cusps or leaflets which are flaps. The mitral valve has two cusps while the other valve has more than two cusps respectively. The thick middle layer of the heart is known as myocardium. Shrinking of the myocardium pumps into the pulmonary veins. The endocardium consists of a thin layer of areolar tissues which is the same as epicardium. Myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or vascular disease can all compromise the normal function of the cardiac cycle albeit with slightly different clinical pictures (Koschate, 2009).

The direction of blood flow is from vena cava and veins of pulmonary into the left and right atria before the flow in ventricles directly. Both the organs of ventricles and atria are lightened and relaxed. At a stable and balanced reducing rate, the ventricles are filled with blood before the pressure which is present in ventricles is similar and equal to that pressure, which is present in the veins, respectively. In the outflow phase, the blood is pumped from that direction of the heart to the great arteries. The level of isovolumetric contraction remains last for approximately 50 ms during the increase in pressure. In isovolumetric decrease, there is no drop of blood that can get away from the ventricles just because, in the beginning, both sets of valves are closed. In ventricles, if the pressure increases the pressure in the pulmonary trunk, then the outflow phase opens rapidly without any hurdles around. Also, with this, the direction of blood begins to start from backward through the valves of outflow.  After this, both sets of pipes are once again closed at the end of the phase of discharge. The ventricles start to reach in relaxation mode, and this is the reason for decreasing the pressure in the ventricles, so after this, the atrioventricular are starting to open, respectively.

ANSWER 4:

CAPILLARY FLUID EXCHANGE:

The general concept of capillary fluid exchange is the exchange of materials or substances from the direction of blood into the tissues which is present in the capillary. There is a kind of force that is produced by the pressure of the fluid on the walls of capillary and this pressure is known as hydrostatic pressure. The separation of fluid among the interstitial and vascular sections is controlled by the agencies and forces such as osmotic and hydrostatic pressure which are controlling throughout the surface regions of absorbent structures and the microvascular walls. The permeable structure comprises endothelial blockade to the fluid and exchange of solute respectively. Capillaries are the biological structures that aim to function in the process of fluid exchange. The capillary vessel controls the amount of fluid exchange in the blood and body tissues. In this biological process, one side is linked to the arterioles, while the other side to venules. This exchange takes place along with the tissues and cells and it also helps in re oxygenating the fluid using the circulator system.

Also with the control of vascular volume, the filtration of transcapillary fluid permits for the repeating movement of water bathing tissues cells which manages and provides the center and medium of diffusion flux of nutrients and oxygen without any hurdles which are needed for the movement of metabolism and shifting of byproducts of metabolic. Ecosystems respond correspondingly to the ensuing spatial and temporal supply of nutrients (Simon et al. 2002). Moreover, the direction of the flow of lymph is essential for the transformation of tumor cells and immune cells. The lymph is generated and driven by the filtration of the capillary. The delivery of antigen occurs to lymph nodes and for return to extravasated proteins to the blood and filtered fluid.

REFERENCES

1) Max Kleiber, 1., 1941. STUDIES ON INTRAPULMONARY MIXTURE OF GASES. IV. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PULMONARY EMPTYING RATE AND A SIMPLIFIED OPEN CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL AIR. New York City: ANDRE COURNAND, pp.1 9.

2) August Krogh, 1., 2002. Structure, function and evaluation of gas exchanger: Comparative Perspectives. Journal of Anatomy,.

3) Szablewski, 2., 2011. Glucose Homeostasis; Mechanism and Defects. [online] Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221919476> [Accessed 2 July 2020].

4) Aronoff et al., 2011. Glucose Homeostasis; Mechanism and Defects. [online] Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221919476> [Accessed 2 July 2020].

5) Koschate.J, 2019. Cardiovascular regulation; associations between exercise and head up tilt. Can J. Physiol Pahrmacol, 97(8), pp.738 745.

6) Simon et al, 2009. Hydrostatic pressure affects physiology and community structure of marine bacteria during settling to 4000 m; An experimental approach. Marine Ecology Process Services, [online] Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250219630> [Accessed 2 July 2020].